The outbreak of the American Revolution
After the Seven Years' War, the British practice of contracting the trade system and reaffirming its power in the colonies caused the Americans to rebel. The Taxation Act of 1764 threatened to impose an actual tax of 3 pence per gallon of syrup, which frightened merchants and winemakers who had been used to tax evasion before. The Stamp Duty Act of 1765 emphasized the inherent taxation power of the Parliament and united the colonies that were largely accustomed to actual independence in the face of opposition. Although the stamp duty was later abolished, the enactment of the Townsend Regulations, which imposed import duties on paper, lead, and tea in 1767, indirectly led to the "Boston Massacre" of 1770.
The Boston Tea Party riots in 1773 started a series of events leading to war. This confrontation caused the British Parliament to pass the "Enforcement Act," ignoring the opposition of the local people, closing the Boston Harbor, canceling Massachusetts' long-recognized concession, and depriving its people of the right to elect local councils. The British's attempt to implement the "Coercive Act" led to the shooting of Lexington and Concord in April 1775. After that, the conflicts between Britain and the North American colonies had no room for relaxation and mediation.
It is particularly difficult for Britain to conduct this war. It takes a two-month voyage to transport a large number of soldiers and materials across the Atlantic Ocean, which is a huge task. Recognizing this difficulty, Lord Barrington, the Secretary of the Army of the United Kingdom, suggested the use of naval blockade to force the colonial people to negotiate. But Lord George Germain, the colonial minister who commanded the war, hardly considered this strategy. He wanted to protect those Tories who could support the British government, thus enticing him to use more conventional occupation methods to punish the colonies. So Britain embarked on a path that ultimately proved to be catastrophic.
The rebels attacked
The skirmish between Lexington and Concord intensified hostility, but it took more than a year for the colony to declare independence. While the British were still gathering their forces, the colonial people had seized the opportunity to launch a series of military operations, which developed into an offensive.
Less than a month after the Concord incident, Ethan Allen occupied the fortress of Teconderoga on Lake Champlain, which was a hub of communication between the rebellious colony and Canada. In the autumn of 1775, the army of the colonial people entered Canada, hoping that the Canadians would join them in resisting Britain. Brigadier General Richard Montgomery captured Montreal in November through the Richelieu Channel of Lake Champlain surveyed by Amherst during the Seven Years' War, and then joined Benedict Arnold, who led 600 people through Northern Maine , Invaded Quebec on New Year's Eve that year. Montgomery died in battle, Arnold was injured, and the offensive failed. But Arnold surrounded the city until spring, when the British brought reinforcements through the thawed St. Lawrence River.
In Boston, the British were surrounded by 16,000 militiamen from the surrounding colonies. The besieged were left alone and helpless, but they remained until May 1775, with the arrival of 10,000 British troops led by Major General William Howe. In July, General George Washington served as the commander of the insurgents and set about organizing untrained militias into an army, but his troops had very little ammunition and could barely fight back against the British. The besieged British lacked nothing, because the regular boat crew brought them ammunition, supplies, and whatever they needed.
Without the approval of Parliament, Washington organized armed ships to carry troops from the coast of New England to attack British ships. Doing so can not only seize the enemy's supply, but also alleviate the serious situation of our own lack of everything. In this way he made up a temporary fleet that has always been called the Washington Navy. The first armed clipper of the Washington Navy, the Schooner "Hanna", quickly captured a British ship after sailing in September. By October, 56 ships were active in Washington. In a short period of time, the Washington Navy captured 38 enemy ships.
At the beginning of March 1776, General Washington installed the artillery of the Tecondroga Fortress to Duchist Heights, looking down at Boston from the south. General Howe, who had suffered enough in the Bunker Hill Heights a year ago, found his position difficult to hold, so he withdrew from Boston and retreated from the sea to Halifax and Nova Scotia, where he waited for Britain to come in early June. Of reinforcements.
If Washington needs to make up a lesson on the importance of building a strong navy, then the unobstructed retreat of the British from Boston is a lesson for him. As long as the British can move freely at sea, Washington will neither be able to stop the retreat of a defeated army, nor can it stop British naval attacks along the coast.
British counterattack
Washington does not doubt Howe will fight back from Halifax. He estimated that Howe’s attack would not be Boston but the more central New York, because it was the gateway to the strategic Hudson River Basin, so he moved to New York and deployed his troops to Manhattan and Brooklyn on Long Island. High ground. A few weeks passed, and Washington was puzzled and then alert that the British had not yet come.
Finally, on July 5th, the day after Parliament signed the Declaration of Independence, Howe arrived under the escort of his brother Admiral Richard Lauder Howe. His troops landed on Staten Island. But at this time, General Howe stood still. He did not act until the European mercenaries and British forces who failed in the containment attack in Charleston, South Carolina added 32,000 to him to deal with the 17,000 in Washington.
On August 22, Howe finally crossed the strait near Long Island and began to advance calmly. Washington slowly backed away. The wind helped him prevent the British fleet from supporting Howe's left flank. The fog helped the rebels flee quietly to Manhattan on the evening of the 29th. Within two months, Washington was forced to withdraw north to White Plains, from where he crossed the Hudson River into New Jersey. He was then forced to cross the Delaware River into Pennsylvania.
At this time, Washington’s army had been reduced to only 3,000, but it was too late in the season that Howe did not continue to advance and occupy Philadelphia, the seat of the Continental Congress. It was at this juncture when the colonial uprising was hopeless, Washington dramatically crossed the Delaware River on Christmas Eve, launched a surprise attack on the stationed mercenaries, and occupied Trenton. After launching a series of attacks on the British outposts, Washington occupied Princeton and controlled most of New Jersey through it. After that, Washington took a stand in Morristown in the Jersey Plateau, threatening the British advance to Philadelphia or threatening them to move up the Hudson River.
In Canada, war broke out again in May. After the river was thawed, 6000 reinforcements from Britain could reach Quebec by water. Arnold and his insurgents immediately withdrew, surrounded and retreated, followed by Major General Guy Carlton, the governor of Canada.
After arriving at Lake Champlain, Arnold hurriedly expanded a small American fleet already on the lake. This action forced the British to stop and expand a fleet slightly stronger than Arnold, because Lake Champlain was the only supply line available in this area. Using materials pulled from land and boats along the Ricci River, they built a 180-ton boat. In addition, they dismantled two schooners on the St. Lawrence River and assembled them on the lake. These boats make them absolutely better than Arnold's small team.
On October 11, the British fleet was finally able to sail, and it followed the north wind to the lake. Arnold led the troops to hide in Varku Island and let it go, thus forcing the enemy to turn around and attack in the wind. Despite this advantage, the Americans suffered a crushing defeat in the subsequent Battle of Varku Island. They managed to escape to Crown Point that night through the British fleet. The British chased after him. In the two days of pursuit, most of the American ships were captured or hit the beach and burned, and the survivors fled to the forest.
Although the British can celebrate their tactical victory and ensure the safety of Canada, the few months of shipbuilding have made them strategically missed, because mid-October is too close to winter and they can no longer move forward. An officer of Carlton lamented: "If we start the march a few weeks earlier, I believe everything will be over this year." But under the current circumstances, the British have no other choice but to spend the winter in Canada. The U.S. Navy won its first and most important victory because it delayed the enemy's invasion when it had no choice.
Battle of Saratoga
The British wanted to continue the war the following year, but in 1777 they would find that the rebels were better prepared to fight them. Washington's victory in Trenton aroused the patriotic enthusiasm of the Americans, but the Americans did not join the army in droves, but had to find ways to recruit soldiers. France was dissatisfied with the British seizure of her overseas empire, and began to provide large amounts of arms to the rebels.
Lieutenant General John Burgoin, who succeeded Carlton in command of the British Army in Canada, planned to advance south through Lake Champlain and the Hudson River to meet General Howe, who was advancing north from New York. In this way they would separate New England, a hotbed of rebellion, from other colonial uprising forces.
But General Howe was worried that Morriston would not be able to attack for a long time, and Washington's army was growing. He did not receive an order to cooperate with the British forces in the north, because no one in London expected Burgoin to encounter serious difficulties. Howe believed that destroying Washington’s army would be his greatest contribution to Britain. The best way to draw Washington from his plateau fortress is to capture Philadelphia. In order to avoid another defeat by Trenton, he did not go by land, but loaded all his troops on board. In order to cross the U.S. defense line of the Delaware River, he detoured the Chesapeake Bay towards Philadelphia.
General Washington was puzzled by Howe and most of his troops disappeared from New York. Will he move north or attack Philadelphia? For almost two months, Washington could not decide how to deploy his troops appropriately. His indecision clearly proved the flexibility and initiative possessed by Britain, which has a powerful navy.
Finally, Washington got news that Howe’s fleet had sailed into the Chesapeake Bay. He immediately organized troops to forcefully reach the Philadelphia area to prevent the enemy from advancing overland from the mouth of the bay. On September 11, Howe defeated Washington at Brandy Creek and went to occupy the capital of the insurgents.
At the same time, Burgoin, who had been seized from Arnold in the fall of last year and had been controlling Lake Champlain, also advanced along the lake in July and occupied the Fortress of Teconderoga. By the end of July, he had reached the upper Hudson River despite the obstacles the Americans set up on his way forward. But in early August, British Colonel Barry St. Ledger, who wanted to join Burgoyne from Lake Ontario via the Mohawk Gorge, fought a bloody battle with the local patriots near Stanwicksburg. Knowing that General Arnold was coming with American reinforcements, St. Ledger hurriedly retreated to Canada.
At the same time, Burgoin discovered that his long transportation line through the wilderness could not guarantee the supply of troops. So he sent a team of nearly 700 people across the Green Mountains near Bennington to seize the warehouses in the town, and then robbed supplies, cattle and cattle in Connecticut. This force only arrived in Bennington. In mid-August, the Green Mountain militia destroyed or captured all this unit. After withstanding these blows, Burgoin stepped up to attack the growing rebels. Finally, under siege by American militias trained by the regular army of Major General Horatio Gates, Burgoin led more than 5,000 men to surrender in Saratoga on October 17, 1777.
The American victory in Saratoga was a turning point in the War of Independence because it proved that the United States had a chance to win and made France openly enter the war. French aid was decisive, but this result was not foreseeable in the autumn of 1777. While Howe's troops spent the winter comfortably in Philadelphia, the remnants of desperate Washington were frozen and starved in Valley Forge.
France joins the war
After hearing the news of Saratoga's victory, France worried that Britain might compromise with the colony and bring peace, and signed a treaty of trade and alliance with Benjamin Franklin on February 6, 1778. France's participation in the war completely changed the nature of the war. A civil war of mixed public opinion in the UK turned into an international war and eventually a new world war. There are wars in the waters near the United States, Gibraltar, the Atlantic Ocean, the Mediterranean Sea, the West Indies, and India. US President Washington is in Europe, and Britain finds itself at war with a large land power and has no allies on the European continent. This is a situation that it has been avoiding and will try to avoid in the future. There is no war caused by taxation in France, and there is no threat to the border without distraction. Now it is free to deal with Britain with all its strength. It wants to use this freedom to control the English Channel and invade the British Isles. A successful invasion will equalize the old account, regain the lost West Indies, and rescue the United States in one fell swoop. Although its own naval power is sufficient for this task, it still persuades Spain to fight with it to ensure a surplus of troops.
The British escaped from Boston with the help of naval forces, which discouraged General Washington, but he could finally count on the support of the first-class navy. From the perspective of the United States, the history of the War of Independence has now become the history of Washington's efforts to ensure the joint decisive battle of the French fleet, because he clearly sees the best hope of American victory from the joint operations.
Early battles at sea
In the spring of 1776, Congress approved private cruises by armed civilian ships, and the newly established US government and US agencies abroad issued appointments. Massachusetts has recognized the existence of military courts for arming civilian ships and disposing of spoils, and other colonies have followed suit, appointed by themselves or by Congress.
Armed civilian ships have made the most effective contribution to the achievements of the United States' ocean voyages. In 1777, when the Royal Navy's fast sailing ships went to sea to protect the British trade, the activities of American armed civilian ships declined, but when France entered the war in 1778 to force the British to build up naval forces, it looked up again. The number of ships engaged in armed private pillage in the United States continues to increase each year, and the efficiency continues to increase. By the end of the war, they had captured nearly 600 British merchant ships.
The initial steps taken by Congress to establish the U.S. Navy were the establishment of the "Navy Council" on October 13, 1775, which would build, equip sea ships and formulate regulations. The following month, the committee bought two three-masted ships, two square-sail brigs, and later two sloops and two multi-masted schooners. On November 10, Congress approved the establishment of the Marine Corps and formed two battalions. Issyk Hopkins-the brother of the Rhode Island naval commissioner-was appointed commander-in-chief of the fleet, a position comparable to that of General Washington in the US Army. Hopkins seemed to be a reasonable man. He went to sea at 20 and later became the captain of a fleet of 17 merchant ships. In the Seven Years' War, he was a brave sailor on a private boat.
Relying on the provisions of the right to freely decide, Hopkins disregarded the order to clear the enemy off the coast of Virginia and Carolina and sailed to the Bahamas, where it is said that there were arms. In early March 1776, he sent a force to New Providence Island, and after overcoming the symbolic resistance of the defenders, he took down the two fortresses guarding Nassau. It then took two weeks to load the captured ammunition on board.
This was the only cruise of the fleet, mainly due to the high rewards of privateers, loose discipline, and low risk, and the cruise missions could not compete with them. Privateers attracted navy sailors. Hopkins could only send a single ship to attack merchant ships. The most successful cruise ship captain is John Paul Jones. His sloop "Providence" captured no less than 16 enemy ships. Then on a cruise on the Alfred, he captured several more, including an armed ship, full of winter clothing and other supplies for the Canadian Carlton Army.
Brigadier General Hopkins is making enemies due to a series of incidents. For example, his inability to execute orders to go to sea and attack Newfoundland fishing boats caused congressional dissatisfaction; his officers accused him of being domineering; New England politicians were dissatisfied with his condemnation of armed private plunder, many of them are this cause Huge investors.
When Hopkins was unable to maintain normal patrols, his fleet was blocked on the Providence River. Later, due to clumsiness, he lost the ability to catch a British clipper that was investigating a reef in Narragansett Bay. opportunity. So Hopkins' political opponents obtained materials to attack him. In March 1777, Congress temporarily suspended him from office and later dismissed him.
After the attack on New Providence, the U.S. Navy only participated in one major battle—the Penobscott Expedition in 1779. This battle was mainly carried out by the Massachusetts Navy. The goal was to attack the British Tory base in Castine, Maine. There were 16 ships escorting the troops, and the US Navy and 3 ships were strengthened. The most powerful of the 16 ships was the fast sailing ship "Warren" with 32 guns. Ship Daddley Saltonstoll directed the expedition. After arriving in Castine in late July, the poorly organized force progressed slowly. British reinforcements won time to arrive from New York. So the Americans disgracefully fled along the Penobscot River and crashed the boat onto the shore.
With the exception of New Jersey and Delaware, all the 13 eastern states built state navies during the war, but these navies were mainly composed of small boats and did not have any major operations.
The most outstanding achievement of the U.S. Navy was to burn the flames of war into British waters. The use of French bases by the U.S. Navy for non-neutral purposes sometimes caused some trouble, because the French occasionally had to make concessions to British protests, but the result was that France was involved in disputes with Britain.
The first US Navy ship to enter European waters was the square-sail brig "Retaliation", commanded by Lambert Wicks. At the end of 1776, Benjamin Franklin arrived in France on this ship. Departing from Nantes in January 1777, Wicks captured five ships. He brought these ships into French ports and caused British protests. The dhow clipper "Dolphin" was equipped and the square-sail brig "Lexington" of the United States Navy arrived in France to form a squadron. Wicks took it around Ireland for a month. 18 ships were taken. On the way back to the United States in the fall, the "Dolphin" sank in a storm near the Great Shoal of Newfoundland, and the captain was killed together.
At the same time, the United States bought the raid, a girder-sail boat in France, and Gostavas Cunningham was appointed as the commander. Departed from Dunkirk in May and soon captured 2 ships and returned. The British protest led the French government to surrender the captured ship, detain the "Raid", and put Cunningham and its crew in prison. But Franklin rescued him in time and asked him to command the dhow Clippers "Vengeance". From France, and then from the Spanish base, he played a big role in the growing tension between the Bourbon dynasty and Britain.
If the squadron converted by Hopkins from a merchant ship was the first U.S. Navy, then the 13 clippers approved by Congress at the end of 1775 would be considered the second. These fast sailing ships were not transformed from merchant ships. They were built as real warships from the keel, but the promise of building an efficient fleet of real warships has never been fulfilled. Six of the 13 fast sailing ships did not go to sea at all for various reasons, and four of the other ships were short-lived. Especially good, the very fast "Hancock" had 32 guns and was captured by a British ship with 44 guns. In Penobscot Bay, Captain John Barry was forced to hit the beach in the face of a powerful enemy, and the Raleigh was lost. The "Warren" was lost in the Penobscott expedition. Only the "Randolph" sank honorably. Its captain, Nicolas Biddle, had commanded the "Andrew Doria" under Hopkins, and later had a successful cruise. When the British advanced into Philadelphia in early 1777, he was lucky to drive the Randolph from the Delaware River to the sea. In the spring of 1778, Biddle was ordered by the Randolph to lead a small squadron to chase after the British cruise. He encountered the Yarmouth with 64 guns near Barbados in March. Biddle attacked it. Without the support of other ships of the squadron, victory was about to be achieved. Suddenly the ammunition compartment of the Randolph exploded, causing the United States to lose an outstanding officer.
So by 1780, only three fast sailing ships were available. The Boston and Providence entered Charleston after a voyage south to guard the city together. Later, both warships were lost when attacking the British. The Trumbull survived alone until 1781, mainly because it could not cross the Connecticut River to go to sea before 1780.
The best officer in the U.S. Navy is John Paul Jones. Under Hopkins, he served as a captain of the "Alfred"; he successfully commanded the "Providence" and "Alfred" to cruise. In 1777 he was appointed to command the "Range" with 18 guns, and sailed to France in the fall of the same year. When the Franco-American alliance treaty was signed, he happened to be in France and happily accepted a tribute from a French squadron in Quiberon Bay. In the spring of 1778, he took the "Range" and attacked ashore around Ireland and captured the "Drake" with 20 guns. A year later, he was ordered to command the "Bornholm Richard", an old and outdated merchant ship of the East India Company. In August 1779, he boarded the ship and led a small squadron composed of a new 32-gun American Clipper "Soyuz" and 3 French ships to circle the British Isles clockwise. , Captured several ships. On the evening of September 4, his most famous battle was fought near Flamborough Cape on the east coast of England.
At dusk, when he approached a British fleet sneakily, he encountered two escort ships-Captain Richard Pearson’s new fast sailing ship "Serapis" with 50 guns and the one with 20 guns. "Countess Scarborough". A French ship attacked the "Countess", Jones with the "Bornholm Richard" attacked the "Serapis". In the first clash of side guns, Jones’s two heaviest guns exploded and the rest of the battery was also damaged. The side fire intensity of the "Richard" was reduced to 195 pounds, and the "Serraby" "S" is 300 pounds.
Jones realized that the artillery battle would be extremely detrimental to him, so he tried to board the "Serapis". The latter dodged flexibly, trying to quickly pass the "Richard". The awkward old merchant ship of the East India Company turned and the bow collided with the stern of the Serapis. In order to prove the superiority of his ship, the British captain emerged from the darkness and shouted contemptuously: "Did your ship collide?" Jones replied loudly: "I haven't started fighting yet!"
Now the "Richard" tried to pass the "Serapis" but failed. The two boats collided, and the wind turned the two boats together, stern and stern. Jones seized the opportunity to order the soldiers to lock the two ships together with iron hooks, while he himself grabbed a broken rope from the Serapis and tied it to the mast of his ship. The two ships were tied together, and almost muzzle to muzzle shot each other for 2 hours. At this time, the "Soyuz" emerged from the darkness and fired three shots at the "Richard" with its side cannons. Captain Landy later confessed to a friend that he wanted to sink the "Richard", capture the "Serapis" alive, and be a winner.
The "Richard" slowly sank, and all the guns were destroyed except for the three guns that fired 9-pound shells, one of which was controlled by Jones himself. At this critical juncture, an American sailor climbed up the mast of the "Richard" and threw a grenade from the hatch of the "Serapis" onto its turret deck, detonating the scattered ammunition. Many gunners died. Then, the mainmast began to tilt, and Captain Pearson's nerves broke and he tore off the flag himself. The tilted "Richard" sank the next day, and General Jones' flag was moved to the "Serapis".
Naval operations in U.S. waters
After the French formed an alliance with the United States, they began to prepare part of the Toulon fleet to fight in the United States. In April 1778, 12 ships set off under the leadership of the Vice Admiral Count De Estin.
The British realized that in order to preserve Britain's position in the Americas, it was necessary to immediately reinforce Admiral Howe. However, the Admiralty was only able to use Admiral Augustus Keppel’s Strait Fleet to extract some men and munitions to provide 13 ships of Admiral John Byron. In July, they set sail for America.
The French alliance made the British army in Philadelphia vulnerable to attack, because the British army's maritime supply had to pass through the Delaware River, which was easily blocked by the French fleet. General Henry Clinton, who succeeded all under the command of the US and British forces, was ordered to immediately withdraw from Philadelphia to New York. In order to avoid the possibility of encountering the French fleet on the way, his troops all go by land, leaving munitions and artillery for Hao to go by sea. Howe's small fleet sailed out of the Delaware River on June 28, arrived in New York the next day, and immediately deployed the clipper to warn the incoming French navy.
De Estin, who once declared: "You are very fast, and you win by surprise" did not pay attention to his motto. If he crossed the Atlantic quickly, he could have captured Howe's fleet in the Delaware River and destroyed it along with Clinton's artillery. It took him 85 days from Toulon to Cape Delaware and arrived on July 6. Fortunately, Byron's British reinforcements arrived later than him because of the storm. Howe then faced a French fleet with nearly twice as many artillery pieces as him.
Howe unyieldingly prepared for a possibly hopeless battle. He lined up his ships densely on the main channel into New York Harbor, and Clinton built an artillery position at the end of Sandy Hook. . On July 11, De Estin's fleet arrived and dropped anchor at a distance of 4 nautical miles from the enemy. General Washington proposed a full-scale cooperative attack on New York, and it seems that now is the time for the kind of joint attack that Washington expected in the early days of the war. However, a simple fact has made this obvious opportunity in vain. The draught of French ships prevented them from passing over a sandy beach with a water depth of only 22 feet. The frustrated De Estin finally withdrew the fleet. Washington was very disappointed to lose this unprecedented opportunity. It could have cut off the British military's maritime links, blocked its supply and reinforcements, and possible escape routes.
De Estein retreated to Boston to rest comfortably. As was common in the sailing age, the battlefield was moved there because of the better winter weather in the West Indies. In early November, De Estan sailed to the Caribbean Sea. The British sent 5,000 troops there from New York at the same time, and the main fleet arrived in early 1779. The main British fleet is now commanded by Admiral Byron, and Lord Howe has surrendered command of the fleet, threatening that he will not do it "as long as the current cabinet is in power".
As early as the West Indies troops played the old trick of "sneak attack on sugar-producing islands", De Estin and Byron were quickly involved in both. In July, the French general had the opportunity to give a British naval commander a tactics lesson. Deestein received reports that a fleet was approaching as soon as he occupied Grenada. This is Byron, bringing several troops and 22 warships to rescue Grenada. The ensuing naval battle in Grenada demonstrated the danger of their chaotic pursuit of this well-organized, deliberately resisting force.
Before dawn the next day, there was almost no wind. De Estin was trying to get its fleet out of the port, and the light of daybreak exposed the overwhelming British. Byron was eager to seize the scattered French ships and order them to pursue them across the board, but the rising wind helped the French form a battle formation. The chaotic British were not organized, and 6 ships lost their combat effectiveness. The battle continued to the west, but Deestein thought that his strategic purpose was to cover Grenada, so he raised the flag and called the fleet to bombard the wounded British ships and sailed back to the port. The next day, the defeated British retreated to St. Kitts. Although the French had more casualties than the British as usual, they not only stood firm in Grenada and won a strategic victory, they also won a tactical victory cleanly.
De Estin remembered that July to October is the approaching typhoon season in the West Indies. During this period, naval forces in this area may either return to the mainland or head to the North American theater. De Estin sailed first to Haiti, the last French port of call in the West Indies. At Cap-Haitien General Washington’s letter was already waiting for him, stating that the British invaded the southern colonies in the absence of the French fleet and occupied Savannah at the end of 1778. With these requests in mind, De Estin is ready to help regain the port.
On September 1, the commander of the French fleet arrived near Savannah with 20 ships of his fleet and transport ships of 3,000 troops. He embarked on this generous expedition after receiving the order to return to France, so he wanted to finish it quickly. As a result, the French and Americans attacked Savannah on October 9 without adequate preparation. The attack failed, the French suffered a terrible defeat, and De Estin himself was injured. He drove to France, leaving his disappointment and pain.
The relative advantages of the French fleet and the British fleet
The French navy of 1778 was the best in the world in many respects. There are about 45 ships ready to go to sea at any time, and France has more ships suitable for combat than Britain. These ships have been scientifically designed to be more beautiful, faster, and larger in tonnage than British ships. French sailor gunners may be the most accurate shooters in the world, and their long-range shooting is obviously better than the British. Finally, the French surpassed the British in both theory and practice of naval tactics. Bigo De Molog's "Navy Tactics" was published in 1763. It not only elaborated on various methods of tactical concentration of forces, but also promoted the development of a set of practical signal systems. These theories and signal systems have been applied in various "mobile exercise squadrons," where most naval commanders during the war were trained there.
On the other hand, the British only have the "Permanent Combat Doctrine", although commanders began to implement the newly issued "Supplementary Doctrine" as early as the Seven Years' War to gain greater flexibility. Lord Howe and Richard Kempenfeldt are committed to making something more effective. An important development during that period was that they created an effective signal system and more flexible tactics for the Royal Navy, but they were not widely adopted until many years after the end of the American Revolution. Signals and tactics are inseparable, because as long as the commander sends a signal to enforce a certain clause of the combat doctrine, it is obviously impossible to leave the doctrine.
Since the shortcomings of the Royal Navy and the advantages of the French Navy in the war were so, why did the French Navy not achieve a clear victory? The main reason seems to be her defensive tradition has played a restrictive role. This tradition developed in previous wars, when French resources were affected by both land and sea wars, and the navy was reminded to save ships. So while the British fired at the hull to destroy and capture enemy ships and permanently control the sea, the French fired at the masts and sails to weaken the enemy's ability and only wanted temporary control. For example, in the naval battle to seize Menorca, Garrisonier did not lose a ship or destroy an enemy ship, but drove Bin’s fleet away, so that the French army had plenty of time to occupy. This island.
Naval operations in European waters
The first maritime operation in European waters during the American Revolution was the Battle of Uysan Island, which was 100 nautical miles west of Uysan Island near the top of Brittany on July 23, 1778, the French Brest Fleet and the British Channel Fleet A naval battle was fought. The commander of the French fleet, Count de Ovilliers, led 29 ships to fight unintentionally and wanted to return to Brest safely. For 3 days, he took advantage of the position to avoid fighting.
On July 27, Commander Keppel, who led 30 ships of the Strait Fleet, finally lost his patience. He ordered a full-line chase, and he did not hesitate to destroy the orderly formation, in an attempt to rush to the rear of the French fleet. However, De Auvilliers suddenly gathered the ship and violently attacked the chaotic British ship. The masts of several ships of the British forward were broken, and the rear end was also severely damaged. This indecisive battle effectively ended the battle. Keppel finally understood that a chaotic full-line pursuit does not necessarily lead to victory.
De Ovilier thought he was playing well and returned to Brest when it was dark. Although the French suffered more casualties than the British, they were obviously more strategic than the British. In addition, they were also pleased with the unusual action of returning to all ships after fighting with the Royal Navy. For the losers during the Seven Years' War, this was not a small victory.
When Keppel, who had been elected as a member of Parliament, was tried by the military for his combat performance, the court was full of his comrades. They turned the trial into a funny show, and he was acquitted amidst the cheers of a mob. For those Royal Navy officers who have forgotten or do not understand these circumstances, his acquittal seems to clearly show that the "Perpetual Combat Doctrine" has lost its sanctity. Keppel was also accused of Matthews in the Battle of Toulon and Bing in the Battle of Menorca, but he was neither fired nor shot. The conclusion is almost clear-the officers can base it on Fight with your best judgment.
France had expected Spain to join the war with it. Spain is the brother of the French Bourbon dynasty and the hard brother of France in the Seven Years War. At the beginning of June 1779, De Ovilier led his fleet of 28 ships from Brest to the south to join a Spanish fleet. At the same time, the Spanish ambassador to London angered the British and caused them to declare war.
The fascist plan that had been formulated determined an attack on Britain from the Isle of Wight and Portsmouth in summer 1779. For this reason, France was able to gather 62 ships, Spain 40 ships, and Britain only had 80 ships at most. In the face of this crisis, Britain clearly lacks commanding talents. Brother Howe and Keppel have gone off stage in dignity. The Ministry of Defense was forced to call out the retired Sir Charles Hardy. He is 63 years old and his physical strength is already unwell.
In panic, the British hurriedly prepared to meet the anticipated invasion. De Ovilliers spent a month waiting for the dragged Spaniards to rendezvous with him, and the combined fleet of 67 ships did not assemble until the end of July. In mid-August, the combined fleet remained on the sea near Portsmouth. Hardy led his 35 ships in and out without any actual challenge. However, at this time, the water and food on the French and Spanish ships were in emergency, and the disease became more and more serious. When the French government was hesitant and changed its plan, Deauville saw Hardy's fleet and chased him for a while. But in the end, the supply was cut off and he returned to Brest angrily.
When the British government was going all out to repel the invasion—the invasion did not happen—John Paul Jones was attacking the British Isles calmly. After defeating the Serapis, he safely drove it to the Netherlands and eventually to France. His brilliant performance here—in contrast to the sad performance of the French-Spanish combined fleet—makes him the most popular person in Paris.
At the end of 1779, Admiral George Bridges Rodney led 22 ships from Britain to rescue Gibraltar from the Spanish blockade. British ships — mostly borrowed from the Channel Fleet — have recently been coated with copper, which gives them an advantage in speed and is not perishable. Rodney was famous in the Seven Years' War, partly because of his bravery, and more because of his preference for careers that would make him a lot of money. When the new war broke out, this old gambler was hiding from debt in Paris. Because he is 60 years old and in poor health, many officers believe that the Navy’s selection of him to lead the rescue army is really exhausted.
In fact, Rodney is both agile and visionary in carrying out this mission. After seeing a Spanish fleet of 11 ships at Cape Saint Vincent, he set sail along the westerly wind and ordered a full-scale pursuit. The copper-clad British ships slowly caught up with the Spaniards. When it was dark, the small wind turned into a strong wind, and the British began to attack the rear of the Spanish fleet. The battle went on all night-the famous "Moonlight War". A Western ship exploded and Rodney captured 6 ships. If the strait is opened, there will be no difficulty in rescuing Gibraltar.
In mid-February, Rodney sailed from Gibraltar to the West Indies, leaving behind the ships preparing to return to the Channel Fleet. Although the French and Spaniards organized joint fleet operations at sea from time to time, which exceeded the number of ships the British could assemble, but other maritime operations in European waters in 1780 were limited to mobile warfare.